FCLE Study Guide 2026

Article I, Section 8 grants Congress the power to declare war, though the President serves as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.

The 14th Amendment guarantees equal protection and due process, and granted citizenship to formerly enslaved persons.

The Supremacy Clause declares the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties to be the supreme law of the land, overriding conflicting state laws.

The Court ruled 6-1 that even a nondenominational, voluntary school prayer violated the Establishment Clause, which prohibits government from sponsoring or endorsing religious activity. The Free Exercise Clause protects individuals' right to practice religion, which was not the issue here — the issue was government-sponsored religious activity in public schools.

Article I, Section 7 specifies that if the President takes no action within 10 days (Sundays excepted) while Congress remains in session, the bill becomes law automatically — as if the President had signed it. The pocket veto only applies when Congress has adjourned and cannot receive the bill's return.

Affirmative action refers to policies and programs designed to address past and present discrimination by promoting equal opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups, particularly in employment and education. These measures aim to increase the representation of women and minorities in areas where they have been underrepresented.