PhB Bachelor of Philosophy Bachelor of Philosophy: Knowledge and Skepticism 2 — Questions and Answers
Question 1: Which philosopher argued that we can never truly know the external world because our senses only give us appearances, not things-in-themselves?
- John Locke
- Immanuel Kant (Correct answer)
- David Hume
- George Berkeley
Correct answer: Immanuel Kant
Kant distinguished between phenomena (appearances) and noumena (things-in-themselves), arguing we can only know the former.
Question 2: The 'closure principle' in epistemology states that if you know P, and you know that P implies Q, then:
- You must verify Q independently before claiming to know it
- You know Q (Correct answer)
- Q is necessarily true
- P and Q are epistemically equivalent
Correct answer: You know Q
The closure principle holds that knowledge is closed under known entailment, so knowing P and knowing P→Q entails knowing Q.
Question 3: What does the term 'epistemic circularity' refer to?
- Using circular definitions in logic
- Justifying a belief-forming process using that same process (Correct answer)
- Knowing that all knowledge is circular
- Deriving conclusions that lead back to premises
Correct answer: Justifying a belief-forming process using that same process
Epistemic circularity occurs when a source of belief (e.g., perception) is validated by appealing to beliefs gained through that same source.
Question 4: According to reliabilism, a belief counts as knowledge when it is:
- Supported by deductive proof
- Produced by a reliable cognitive process (Correct answer)
- Coherent with all other beliefs
- Directly evident to the believer
Correct answer: Produced by a reliable cognitive process
Reliabilism, associated with Alvin Goldman, holds that justified belief is produced by cognitive processes that tend to yield true beliefs.
Question 5: The 'lottery paradox,' introduced by Henry Kyburg, shows a tension between:
- A priori and a posteriori knowledge
- High probability and justified belief in conjunction (Correct answer)
- Induction and deduction
- Skepticism and common sense
Correct answer: High probability and justified belief in conjunction
Kyburg's paradox shows that if high probability suffices for justified belief, we can be justified in believing each ticket will lose, yet we know one ticket must win.
Question 6: Cartesian skepticism is most directly a challenge to which type of knowledge?
- Mathematical knowledge
- Empirical knowledge of the external world (Correct answer)
- Knowledge of one's own mental states
- Logical tautologies
Correct answer: Empirical knowledge of the external world
Descartes used doubt scenarios (evil demon, dreaming) to challenge whether our senses reliably inform us about an external world.
Question 7: Which approach holds that skeptical possibilities like brains in vats are not genuine epistemic threats because ordinary knowledge-attributions operate in low-stakes contexts?
- Infallibilism
- Contextualism (Correct answer)
- Foundationalism
- Coherentism
Correct answer: Contextualism
Contextualism claims that the standards for knowledge-attributions shift with context, so everyday claims to know are true even though they fail under skeptical scrutiny.
PhB Bachelor of Philosophy Bachelor of Philosophy: Knowledge and Skepticism 2
Which philosopher argued that we can never truly know the external world because our senses only give us appearances, not things-in-themselves?