Master of Pharmacy: Research and Biostatistics Flashcards
16 cards from real MPharm Master of Pharmacy practice questions. Tap to flip, then mark Knew It or Still Learning — missed cards come back until you master them.
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How is the truth often avoided?
Answer: All of the above
The truth is often avoided for a combination of reasons, including malicious intentions, self-gain, or even to spare someone's feelings. These motivations, whether selfish or altruistic, can lead individuals to withhold, distort, or misrepresent information. Therefore, all the listed options represent common ways in which the truth is frequently circumvented.
What is the purpose of a process designed to discover the truth?
Answer: Research
The purpose of a process designed to discover the truth is research. Research is a systematic and structured inquiry aimed at finding new knowledge, confirming existing facts, or revising theories. While observation and logical inferences are crucial tools within research, research itself is the overarching process for the comprehensive pursuit and discovery of truth.
How is the truth sought?
Answer: Both A & B
The truth is sought through both observation and logical inferences. Observation provides empirical data and facts about the world, serving as the foundation for understanding. Logical inferences then allow us to interpret these observations, draw conclusions, and build coherent knowledge. These two approaches work synergistically to construct and ascertain truth.
What are the types of Logical inferences?
Answer: Both A & B
The two primary types of logical inferences are deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning moves from general principles to specific conclusions, while inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to general conclusions. Both are essential tools in scientific inquiry, problem-solving, and critical thinking for drawing valid inferences.
What method uses a theory to predict an observation?
Answer: Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the method that uses a theory to predict an observation. It is a top-down approach where one starts with a general theory or hypothesis and then makes specific predictions or observations based on that theory. If the theory is true, then the predictions derived from it must logically also be true, making it crucial for testing hypotheses.
Which method uses observations to make generalizations?
Answer: Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the method that uses observations to make generalizations. It is a bottom-up approach where one starts with specific observations or data and then uses these to form broader generalizations or theories. This method is fundamental in scientific discovery for formulating hypotheses and developing new theories based on empirical evidence.
What type of model describes physical laws of nature as not variable and not dependent on probability?
Answer: Deterministic Model
A deterministic model describes physical laws of nature as not variable and not dependent on probability. In such a model, the outcome is entirely determined by the input parameters and initial conditions, with no random variation. Given the same inputs, a deterministic model will always produce the same output, reflecting a predictable and fixed system.
Which model's outcome is dependent on probability and chance?
Answer: Probabilistic Model
A probabilistic model is one whose outcome is dependent on probability and chance. Unlike deterministic models, it incorporates random variables and accounts for uncertainty in its predictions. This type of model is used when there is inherent variability or randomness in the system being studied, meaning the outcome is not entirely predictable from inputs alone.
What process involves taking results obtained from a sample and extrapolating them to the population?
Answer: Statistical Inference
Statistical inference is the process that involves taking results obtained from a sample and extrapolating them to the population. It uses probability theory to make generalizations, estimate parameters, and test hypotheses about the larger group from which the sample was drawn. This extrapolation is a core concept in research, allowing conclusions about a whole population based on a smaller, representative subset.
What term refers to patients with the disease who are actually in the study?
Answer: Sample
In a research study, the term 'sample' refers to the patients with the disease who are actually included in the study. This is a subset of the larger population of interest, carefully selected to represent that population. The data collected from this sample is then used to draw conclusions that are intended to be generalizable to the broader population.
What term refers to ALL patients with the disease who have the same characteristics as defined by the inc/exc criteria?
Answer: Population
The term 'population' refers to ALL patients with the disease who have the same characteristics as defined by the inclusion/exclusion criteria of a study. It represents the entire group of individuals to whom the study findings are intended to be generalized. While only a sample of this population is directly studied, the goal is to understand the characteristics and responses of this larger, defined group.
What concept is based on probability and does not always ensure that the extrapolation of results is correct?
Answer: Inference
Inference, particularly statistical inference, is a concept based on probability and therefore does not always ensure that the extrapolation of results is correct. While it allows us to draw conclusions about a population from a sample, there is always a degree of uncertainty and a chance of error. This inherent probabilistic nature means that conclusions are made with a certain level of confidence, not absolute certainty.
What are factors that can cause samples to be not representative of the population?
Answer: All of the above
Samples can be not representative of the population due to several factors. If samples are not chosen at random, selection bias can occur. Additionally, overly strict inclusion/exclusion criteria can isolate the sample from the typical patient in the population, limiting generalizability. Finally, a research protocol that forces an artificial environment can also make the sample's responses unrepresentative of real-world conditions, compromising the validity of the extrapolation.
What term refers to whether a variable or methodology measures what it claims to measure?
Answer: Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which a variable or methodology accurately measures what it intends to measure. It ensures that the research tool or assessment truly captures the concept it claims to, making the findings meaningful and relevant. This is distinct from reliability, which focuses on consistency of measurement.
What does "Internal Validity" assess in a study?
Answer: The extent of support for causal inference
Internal validity assesses the degree to which a study's design and execution allow for a confident conclusion about a causal relationship between variables. It focuses on minimizing confounding factors and alternative explanations for observed effects within the study itself. High internal validity strengthens the support for causal inference, indicating that the independent variable truly caused changes in the dependent variable.
What does "External Validity" refer to in a study?
Answer: The generalizability of findings
External validity refers to the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, and times beyond the specific conditions of the research. It addresses whether the results are applicable and meaningful in real-world contexts. High external validity makes a study's conclusions broadly relevant and transferable.