ARK Theological and Cardinal Virtues 2 — Questions and Answers
Question 1: The cardinal virtue of prudence (phronesis) is considered the 'charioteer of virtues' because:
- It is the most important virtue in all situations
- It governs the right application of all other virtues to concrete situations (Correct answer)
- It replaces all other virtues in the virtuous person
- It is the virtue most mentioned in scripture
Correct answer: It governs the right application of all other virtues to concrete situations
Prudence is practical wisdom — it determines what the other virtues require in each specific situation, directing justice, fortitude, and temperance toward right action.
Thomas Aquinas called prudence the 'auriga virtutum' (charioteer of virtues) because it applies moral principles to concrete circumstances. It involves deliberation (counsel), judgment, and command. Without prudence, the other virtues may be misdirected: one might be rashly brave, unjustly just, or fanatically temperate. Aristotle's phronesis (practical wisdom) was Christianized by Aquinas as the intellectual virtue that binds moral excellence to right action in the real world.
Question 2: In Aquinas's framework, the theological virtue of hope differs from natural optimism in that it:
- Is based on probability of good outcomes
- Has God himself as its object and ground — trust in God's promises of eternal life (Correct answer)
- Concerns only temporal well-being
- Is earned by moral effort
Correct answer: Has God himself as its object and ground — trust in God's promises of eternal life
Theological hope has God's promises and power as its foundation — it is trust in God's fidelity to bring believers to eternal life, not merely optimistic disposition.
Aquinas distinguishes theological hope from natural desire or optimism: its object is eternal beatitude (God himself); its ground is God's omnipotence and fidelity; it is infused by grace, not acquired by habit. It is a middle way between presumption (assuming salvation regardless of one's life) and despair (losing trust in God's mercy). Romans 5:1-5 grounds hope in God's love poured out through the Holy Spirit, which does not disappoint.
Question 3: The cardinal virtue of temperance is primarily concerned with:
- Avoiding all pleasures
- Moderating desire for sensory pleasures in accordance with reason and faith (Correct answer)
- Limiting financial expenditure
- Controlling anger
Correct answer: Moderating desire for sensory pleasures in accordance with reason and faith
Temperance (sophrosyne) moderates the appetite for pleasures — especially food, drink, and sexuality — keeping them within the bounds of reason and appropriate to human dignity.
Temperance (Latin: temperantia; Greek: sophrosyne) is the virtue of moderation. It does not require eliminating pleasure — Aquinas argues pleasure is good and necessary — but ordering it according to reason and ultimate human flourishing. Its parts include abstinence (food), sobriety (drink), chastity (sexuality), and modesty. The opposite vices are intemperance (excess) and insensibility (inappropriate denial of legitimate pleasure). Paul lists 'self-control' (enkrateia) as a fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:23).
Question 4: What distinguishes 'acquired' virtues from 'infused' virtues in Catholic moral theology?
- Acquired virtues are more important than infused ones
- Acquired virtues are developed through repeated practice; infused virtues are gifts of grace directly given by God (Correct answer)
- Infused virtues can be lost; acquired cannot
- Acquired virtues are only for clergy
Correct answer: Acquired virtues are developed through repeated practice; infused virtues are gifts of grace directly given by God
Acquired virtues develop through habituation and practice (Aristotle's model); infused virtues — including the theological virtues — are gracious gifts from God that exceed natural human capacity.
Aquinas synthesized Aristotle's virtue ethics (virtues as stable habits acquired through practice) with Christian grace theology: moral virtues can be acquired humanly, but the theological virtues (faith, hope, charity) are infused directly by God and cannot be 'practiced' into existence. There are also infused moral virtues that accompany sanctifying grace, ordering natural virtues toward supernatural ends. This synthesis allows natural ethics to be integrated into supernatural Christian moral theology.
Question 5: The virtue of justice in Catholic moral theology is defined as:
- Treating everyone the same regardless of need
- Giving to each person what is rightfully due to them (Correct answer)
- Punishing wrongdoers proportionately
- Following civil law in all circumstances
Correct answer: Giving to each person what is rightfully due to them
Justice (iustitia) is the stable disposition to give each person and God what is rightfully owed to them — in social, commutative, and distributive relationships.
Aquinas (following Aristotle and Ulpian) defines justice as the constant and permanent will to render to each their due (ius suum cuique). Types include: commutative justice (between individuals — contracts, promises), distributive justice (society's fair distribution of goods and burdens), legal justice (individuals' duties to society), and social justice (the conditions for a just society). The Jewish tradition's tsedakah (justice/righteousness) and the prophets' demands for justice are foundational to this virtue's theological dimension.
Question 6: In Catholic teaching, the virtue of charity (agape) is called 'the form of all virtues' because:
- Charity precedes all other virtues in time
- Charity gives all other virtues their ultimate direction and perfection toward God and neighbor (Correct answer)
- Charity makes all other virtues unnecessary
- Charity is the virtue most practiced
Correct answer: Charity gives all other virtues their ultimate direction and perfection toward God and neighbor
Charity is 'the bond of perfection' (Col 3:14) and the 'form' of all virtues — it directs and gives ultimate meaning to every other virtue's exercise, orienting all to love of God and neighbor.
Aquinas calls charity the forma virtutum (form of the virtues): just as form gives matter its specific character, charity gives every virtue its ultimate ordering toward God and beatitude. Virtues exercised without charity may produce natural excellence but lack supernatural merit and ultimate direction. Thomas cites Augustine: 'Begin to love, and you will perfect the rest.' 1 Corinthians 13:2 ('if I have all faith but not love, I am nothing') grounds this primacy. Charity also enables the other theological virtues to function — faith and hope are ordered by charity.
ARK Theological and Cardinal Virtues 2
The cardinal virtue of prudence (phronesis) is considered the 'charioteer of virtues' because: