General Flashcards

The common law is to statutes as __________ is to __________.

Answer: judge-made law : codified law

Common law refers to legal principles developed by judges through court decisions, often evolving over time without being formally written into statutes. Statutes, on the other hand, are laws formally enacted by legislative bodies and are codified (written down). Therefore, common law is accurately described as 'judge-made law,' and statutes as 'codified law,' representing their fundamental distinction in origin and form.

Clinician: A family of medications commonly used to treat immune system problems sadly raises the risk that the patient will develop osteoporosis, a condition that causes bone loss. These patients then take a different medication that aids in maintaining existing bone. These patients should take the new medication in addition to the medication that helps to retain existing bone because a medication that promotes the creation of new bone cells is now readily available. Which one of the following would be most useful to know in order to evaluate the clinician’s argument?

Answer: To what extend does the new drug retain its efficacy when used in combination with the other drugs?

The clinician argues that a new drug should be taken *in addition to* an existing drug. To evaluate this recommendation, it is crucial to know if the combined effect is beneficial or if there are interactions. The efficacy of the new drug might be altered when used with the other medications. Therefore, understanding 'to what extent the new drug retains its efficacy when used in combination with the other drugs' is essential to determine if the clinician's proposed treatment plan is sound.

Economist: Every company aims to boost productivity since doing so boosts shareholders' earnings and the likelihood that the company will survive. However, not all initiatives to boost efficiency are advantageous to the company as a whole. Attempts to boost productivity frequently result in fewer personnel, which hurts both the morale of the kept employees and the fired employees. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the economist’s argument?

Answer: Some measures taken by a business to increase productivity fail to be beneficial to the business as a whole

The economist begins by stating that companies aim to boost productivity, but then introduces a 'however' clause, which typically signals the main conclusion. The statement 'However, not all initiatives to boost efficiency are advantageous to the company as a whole' directly expresses the central point the economist is making. The subsequent sentence about personnel reduction and morale serves as evidence or explanation for this conclusion.

The majority of the university's Spanish 101 students showed up to each class session during the previous semester. However, every pupil who obtained a grade of B minus or lower missed at least one class period. Which of the following claims regarding the university's Spanish 101 students from the previous semester may be correctly deduced from the facts above?

Answer: More than half of the students received a grade of B minus or higher

The facts state that 'Every pupil who obtained a grade of B minus or lower missed at least one class period.' This implies that any student who *attended every class session* must have received a grade *higher than B minus*. Since a 'majority' of students showed up to each class session (meaning they attended every class), it logically follows that a majority of students received a grade higher than B minus. If a majority received a grade higher than B minus, then it is certainly true that more than half received a grade of B minus or higher.

It's crucial to equally work the muscles on the opposing sides of the spine when working out the back muscles in order to maintain a healthy back. Since the muscles on either side of the spine must equally pull in opposite directions to keep the back in appropriate alignment and protect the spine, balanced muscle development is necessary to maintain a healthy back. Which of the following is a presumption that the argument demands?

Answer: Exercising the muscles on opposite sides of the spine unequally tends to lead to unbalanced muscle development

The argument states that 'balanced muscle development is necessary' and that it's 'crucial to equally work the muscles.' For the argument to logically connect these two ideas, it must assume that if one *doesn't* work the muscles equally, then balanced development will *not* occur. Therefore, the assumption that 'Exercising the muscles on opposite sides of the spine unequally tends to lead to unbalanced muscle development' is required to bridge the gap between unequal exercise and the lack of necessary balanced development.

Barrimore is the most qualified candidate for sheriff if Santos isn't. Barrimore will be elected if the most qualified candidate wins and Santos loses. Which of the following justifications most closely resembles the justification in the previous argument?

Answer: If the lowest bidder on the sanitation contract is not Drillion, then it is Randall. So if the contract goes to the lowest bidder and it does not go to Drillion, then it will go to Randall.

The original argument has the structure: 'If not X, then Y. So if Z and not X, then Y.' Specifically, 'If Santos isn't most qualified, Barrimore is.' (If not S, then B). 'If most qualified wins and Santos loses, then Barrimore wins.' (If Q wins and not S wins, then B wins). Option B mirrors this perfectly: 'If the lowest bidder is not Drillion, then it is Randall.' (If not D, then R). 'So if the contract goes to the lowest bidder and it does not go to Drillion, then it will go to Randall.' (If L wins and not D wins, then R wins). Both arguments establish a binary choice in the first premise and then apply it to a scenario where one choice is eliminated.

Anthony: By staying on the middle path at all times, one can lead a moderate existence. However, doing so results in a loss of the fun of spontaneity and a failure to seize the chances that periodically present themselves to people who are willing to take big risks or go too far. Martha: However, a person who never takes a chance of going too far in the name of moderation is actually failing to live a life of moderation; one must be moderate even when exercising moderation. Anthony and Martha disagree over

Answer: What life of moderation requires of a person

Anthony defines a moderate existence as strictly adhering to the 'middle path,' noting its trade-offs. Martha challenges this definition, arguing that true moderation *itself* requires a degree of flexibility, implying that never deviating from the middle path is actually a failure of moderation. Their fundamental disagreement lies in their differing interpretations of what a 'life of moderation requires of a person' – whether it's strict adherence or a more nuanced approach that includes occasional risk-taking.

Since the chairperson did not engage any other commission members over the release of the report before having it issued, the Election Commission's report should not have been made public. The argument’s conclusion can be properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed?

Answer: It would have been permissible for the chairperson to release the commission's report to the public only if most other members of the commission had first given their consent

This is a sufficient-assumption question, so we need a principle that makes the conclusion follow from the premise. Stating that releasing the report was permissible only if most other members had first consented bridges the gap: since the chairperson consulted no one, that condition failed and release was impermissible. The other choices set up different or weaker conditions that don't validly force the conclusion.

Ethicist: Typically, grain-fed animals need to consume sixteen pounds of grain in order to produce one pound of meat. While sixteen pounds of grain could feed much more people than a pound of meat, a pound of grain is still more nutrient-dense for humans. Given the leveling off of grain yields, the annual loss of vast tracts of productive farmland, and the rapid growth of the human population, we must embrace the fact that eating meat will eventually become immoral. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the ethicist’s argument?

Answer: Often, cattle or sheep can be raised to maturity on grass from pastureland that is unsuitable for any other kind of farming

The ethicist's argument rests on meat production diverting grain that could otherwise feed people. Pointing out that cattle and sheep can be raised on pastureland unfit for any other farming undermines this, showing meat can be produced without consuming human food resources. The other options address diet preferences or nutrition without breaking the core grain-competition link.

Johnson's gas costs went up after he switched to a new, highly efficient, pilotless gas water heater to replace his old one. Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the increase mentioned above EXCEPT:

Answer: The new water heater uses a smaller percentage of the gas used by Johnson's household than did the old one.

Every other choice supplies a reason gas costs could rise despite an efficient heater—a new gas dryer, a larger household, cold weather, or a rate hike. Saying the new heater uses a smaller percentage of the household's gas than the old one points toward lower usage, not higher cost, so it fails to explain the increase and is the EXCEPT.

1Every schoolboy is familiar with the broad strokes of Macaulay's life and work, to use one of his own favorite adages. We have recited the Lays, presumably read some of the History, and perhaps even heard of his eloquent and unrestrained criticism of writers whose works offended him. Even if his assertions weren't always correct, we know that his recall was incredible. The biographers go on to say that no one could be more uncomplicated or more dedicated to his own family; his nephews and nieces were unaware of his greatness and considered him to be their favorite "Uncle Tom." Of course, criticism is far from unanimity. 'Macaulay, the great prophet of Whiggery which never had or will have a prophet, vehemently judged that a man who could pass over from the celestial Whigs to the infernal Tories must be a traitor false as Judas, an apostate black,' observed Mr. Augustine Birrell wryly. James Thomson epitomized his political bias in a biting sentence: "Macaulay, historiographer in chief to the Whig Always a youngster at heart and utterly unconcerned with his appearance, Macaulay had such incredible success in every field that envy may be to blame for the majority of personal criticism that isn't motivated by obvious rivals. Those who referred to him as a bore were probably being overly sensitive about their own incapacity to counter ideas or viewpoints that they yearned to oppose. When the magnificent piece on the translation of a recently discovered Milton dissertation on Christian Doctrine appeared in the Edinburgh (1825) and unleashed a new force in English prose, he was a student at Lincoln's Inn. Even though Macaulay admitted it was "overloaded with garish and ungraceful argument," it cemented his literary reputation and shaped a significant portion of his career. He gained control over the 21Edinburgh, perhaps slightly altering its overall tone, and started to identify with its reputation. Christopher North claims that "the son of a Saint," who appears to be some sort of reviewer, is "insidious as the serpent, but fangless as the glow worm." The Tory press, of course, was outraged at the champion critic of their favorite prodigies. A critical reading skill that is vital is the ability to infer meaning from a passage. Which of the following inquiries would be regarded as important to both passages, even though their writers are different?

Answer: How did planetary circulation; astro storms and geological land involvement affect global/climate changes in our atmosphere since post Ice ages. ?

The primary subject of both chapters is the relationship between astronomical storms and climate change, specifically how it may or may not affect the earth's crust. The effects of astrological changes leading to a changing geological environment or the reverse are discussed in passage A. In contrast, the author of Passage B emphasizes how our climate locations are impacted by geological changes on the earth's surface. According to the passage's evidence, the additional response options only accurately reflect one or the other comparison articles, not both at once.

1Every schoolboy is familiar with the broad strokes of Macaulay's life and work, to use one of his own favorite adages. We have recited the Lays, presumably read some of the History, and perhaps even heard of his eloquent and unrestrained criticism of writers whose works offended him. Even if his assertions weren't always correct, we know that his recall was incredible. The biographers go on to say that no one could be more uncomplicated or more dedicated to his own family; his nephews and nieces were unaware of his greatness and considered him to be their favorite "Uncle Tom." Of course, criticism is far from unanimity. 'Macaulay, the great prophet of Whiggery which never had or will have a prophet, vehemently judged that a man who could pass over from the celestial Whigs to the infernal Tories must be a traitor false as Judas, an apostate black,' observed Mr. Augustine Birrell wryly. James Thomson epitomized his political bias in a biting sentence: "Macaulay, historiographer in chief to the Whig Always a youngster at heart and utterly unconcerned with his appearance, Macaulay had such incredible success in every field that envy may be to blame for the majority of personal criticism that isn't motivated by obvious rivals. Those who referred to him as a bore were probably being overly sensitive about their own incapacity to counter ideas or viewpoints that they yearned to oppose. When the magnificent piece on the translation of a recently discovered Milton dissertation on Christian Doctrine appeared in the Edinburgh (1825) and unleashed a new force in English prose, he was a student at Lincoln's Inn. Even though Macaulay admitted it was "overloaded with garish and ungraceful argument," it cemented his literary reputation and shaped a significant portion of his career. He gained control over the 21Edinburgh, perhaps slightly altering its overall tone, and started to identify with its reputation. Christopher North claims that "the son of a Saint," who appears to be some sort of reviewer, is "insidious as the serpent, but fangless as the glow worm." The Tory press, of course, was outraged at the champion critic of their favorite prodigies. Read Passage B then choose the statement(s) that best identify a claim and possible supporting evidence found in Passage B only.

Answer: Claim: Movements of the earth's crust are the main cause of geological changes of climate is becoming increasingly untenable. Supporting Evidence: Many geologists still hold that directly or indirectly the greater climatic changes have been mainly due to movements of the earth's crust and reaction of the crustal movements on the atmosphere.

There are arguments that can be derived from passage B that are supported by supporting evidence. However, for the purposes of this question, the statements of claim and supporting data given in Passage B paragraph 1 are the appropriate response. The other answer options consist of assertions without any supporting details found in Passage B.

1Every schoolboy is familiar with the broad strokes of Macaulay's life and work, to use one of his own favorite adages. We have recited the Lays, presumably read some of the History, and perhaps even heard of his eloquent and unrestrained criticism of writers whose works offended him. Even if his assertions weren't always correct, we know that his recall was incredible. The biographers go on to say that no one could be more uncomplicated or more dedicated to his own family; his nephews and nieces were unaware of his greatness and considered him to be their favorite "Uncle Tom." Of course, criticism is far from unanimity. 'Macaulay, the great prophet of Whiggery which never had or will have a prophet, vehemently judged that a man who could pass over from the celestial Whigs to the infernal Tories must be a traitor false as Judas, an apostate black,' observed Mr. Augustine Birrell wryly. James Thomson epitomized his political bias in a biting sentence: "Macaulay, historiographer in chief to the Whig Always a youngster at heart and utterly unconcerned with his appearance, Macaulay had such incredible success in every field that envy may be to blame for the majority of personal criticism that isn't motivated by obvious rivals. Those who referred to him as a bore were probably being overly sensitive about their own incapacity to counter ideas or viewpoints that they yearned to oppose. When the magnificent piece on the translation of a recently discovered Milton dissertation on Christian Doctrine appeared in the Edinburgh (1825) and unleashed a new force in English prose, he was a student at Lincoln's Inn. Even though Macaulay admitted it was "overloaded with garish and ungraceful argument," it cemented his literary reputation and shaped a significant portion of his career. He gained control over the 21Edinburgh, perhaps slightly altering its overall tone, and started to identify with its reputation. Christopher North claims that "the son of a Saint," who appears to be some sort of reviewer, is "insidious as the serpent, but fangless as the glow worm." The Tory press, of course, was outraged at the champion critic of their favorite prodigies. Read passage A, then decide which statement or statements most accurately describe a claim made in passage A alone.

Answer: It was shown, however, by Laplace that the change of obliquity was confined within so narrow limits that it has scarcely ever been appealed to as a cause seriously affecting climate.

The correct response option, which can be found in Passage A-end of paragraph, raises the possibility that the assertion of possible impacts of climate change is demonstrable and is supported by citing the statements of Sir John Herschel and a few other astronomers who focused their attention on the consideration. The other answer choices don't explicitly spell out the evidence supporting the assertions in Passage A alone.

1Every schoolboy is familiar with the broad strokes of Macaulay's life and work, to use one of his own favorite adages. We have recited the Lays, presumably read some of the History, and perhaps even heard of his eloquent and unrestrained criticism of writers whose works offended him. Even if his assertions weren't always correct, we know that his recall was incredible. The biographers go on to say that no one could be more uncomplicated or more dedicated to his own family; his nephews and nieces were unaware of his greatness and considered him to be their favorite "Uncle Tom." Of course, criticism is far from unanimity. 'Macaulay, the great prophet of Whiggery which never had or will have a prophet, vehemently judged that a man who could pass over from the celestial Whigs to the infernal Tories must be a traitor false as Judas, an apostate black,' observed Mr. Augustine Birrell wryly. James Thomson epitomized his political bias in a biting sentence: "Macaulay, historiographer in chief to the Whig Always a youngster at heart and utterly unconcerned with his appearance, Macaulay had such incredible success in every field that envy may be to blame for the majority of personal criticism that isn't motivated by obvious rivals. Those who referred to him as a bore were probably being overly sensitive about their own incapacity to counter ideas or viewpoints that they yearned to oppose. When the magnificent piece on the translation of a recently discovered Milton dissertation on Christian Doctrine appeared in the Edinburgh (1825) and unleashed a new force in English prose, he was a student at Lincoln's Inn. Even though Macaulay admitted it was "overloaded with garish and ungraceful argument," it cemented his literary reputation and shaped a significant portion of his career. He gained control over the 21Edinburgh, perhaps slightly altering its overall tone, and started to identify with its reputation. Christopher North claims that "the son of a Saint," who appears to be some sort of reviewer, is "insidious as the serpent, but fangless as the glow worm." The Tory press, of course, was outraged at the champion critic of their favorite prodigies. Select the introductory phrase that best captures a climate change concept that appears in passage B but not in passage A.

Answer: The author identified the implications of the earths landscape movement after the Ice age process is an unclear point of view that lacks research ability due to difficult and speedy climatic changes.

Because it depicts a thought or notion that only appears in passage B and not passage A, the correct answer choice is the sole acceptable solution. As the complexity and velocity of climatic changes become more apparent, particularly during post-glacial eras, the assumption that the earth's crust is to blame for geological climate changes is becoming untenable, according to the author of Passage B. It indicates that the earth's surface travels upward and downward at a rate and with a facility that seem impossible. The author of passage A also raises the possibility that the glacial era (Ice Age) caused climate changes, but he bases his argument on the earth and the sun rather than applying the notion to land-based climatic changes like volcanoes. Additional answer options are either absent from passage B or do not correspond to the assumptions made in either passage.

1Every schoolboy is familiar with the broad strokes of Macaulay's life and work, to use one of his own favorite adages. We have recited the Lays, presumably read some of the History, and perhaps even heard of his eloquent and unrestrained criticism of writers whose works offended him. Even if his assertions weren't always correct, we know that his recall was incredible. The biographers go on to say that no one could be more uncomplicated or more dedicated to his own family; his nephews and nieces were unaware of his greatness and considered him to be their favorite "Uncle Tom." Of course, criticism is far from unanimity. 'Macaulay, the great prophet of Whiggery which never had or will have a prophet, vehemently judged that a man who could pass over from the celestial Whigs to the infernal Tories must be a traitor false as Judas, an apostate black,' observed Mr. Augustine Birrell wryly. James Thomson epitomized his political bias in a biting sentence: "Macaulay, historiographer in chief to the Whig Always a youngster at heart and utterly unconcerned with his appearance, Macaulay had such incredible success in every field that envy may be to blame for the majority of personal criticism that isn't motivated by obvious rivals. Those who referred to him as a bore were probably being overly sensitive about their own incapacity to counter ideas or viewpoints that they yearned to oppose. When the magnificent piece on the translation of a recently discovered Milton dissertation on Christian Doctrine appeared in the Edinburgh (1825) and unleashed a new force in English prose, he was a student at Lincoln's Inn. Even though Macaulay admitted it was "overloaded with garish and ungraceful argument," it cemented his literary reputation and shaped a significant portion of his career. He gained control over the 21Edinburgh, perhaps slightly altering its overall tone, and started to identify with its reputation. Christopher North claims that "the son of a Saint," who appears to be some sort of reviewer, is "insidious as the serpent, but fangless as the glow worm." The Tory press, of course, was outraged at the champion critic of their favorite prodigies. Choose the introductory phrase that is most likely to result in agreement from both passage authors.

Answer: The ambiguity of climate changes infer that a cause and effect study of the earths' atmosphere from the sun to below Earths surface may not bring clarity due to the eccentricity of earth's orbit.

Through making assertions and citing evidence relating to the climate impacts, such as the cause and effect of astronomical causes to our geological climate and passage B's intention to understand the geological changes from the earth's surface and below, both authors identified with the effects of climate change and crisis. Additional response options are either inaccurate claims not contained in either passage or do not connect to the core issue focus of the two passages, which is climate impacts.

Daryl: Pure research gives us brand-new innovations that help us save lives. But what makes it more valuable than this is how it adds to our knowledge and offers fresh, untested concepts. Kyle: You have the wrong priorities. In the end, what matters most is saving lives. Medicine would not be as sophisticated as it is now without pure research. Daryl and Kyle disagree on whether pure research

Answer: has its most valuable achievements in medical applications

Daryl says pure research's value comes mainly from expanding knowledge and generating new untested ideas, ranking that above its life-saving applications. Kyle counters that saving lives is what matters most. Thus they disagree precisely over whether pure research's most valuable achievements lie in medical applications.