LMHC Counseling Research and Program Evaluation 2 — Questions and Answers
Question 1: In quantitative research, 'statistical significance' (p < .05) means:
- The results are practically important and clinically meaningful
- There is less than a 5% probability that the results occurred by chance (Correct answer)
- The effect size is large enough to matter in clinical practice
- The sample size was adequate for the study
Correct answer: There is less than a 5% probability that the results occurred by chance
Statistical significance (p < .05) means there is less than a 5% probability the results are due to chance — but does not indicate clinical or practical significance.
A p-value less than .05 means that if there were truly no effect, the probability of obtaining results this extreme by random chance alone is less than 5%. Statistical significance does NOT indicate the size or clinical importance of the effect — a tiny, clinically irrelevant difference can be statistically significant in large samples. Counselors must understand effect size (Cohen's d, r²) alongside significance when interpreting research.
Question 2: Which qualitative research approach is most focused on understanding the lived experiences of individuals as they experience a specific phenomenon?
- Grounded theory
- Phenomenology (Correct answer)
- Ethnography
- Case study
Correct answer: Phenomenology
Phenomenology specifically aims to understand the subjective, lived experience of a phenomenon from the perspectives of those who have experienced it.
Phenomenological research (associated with Husserl and applied in counseling by Moustakas) seeks to understand the essential structure of lived human experience. Researchers bracket their own assumptions (epoché) and gather detailed descriptive accounts from participants about their experience of a specific phenomenon. Grounded theory builds theory from data. Ethnography studies cultural groups in context. Case study examines a bounded unit in depth.
Question 3: A counselor reads a meta-analysis reporting an average effect size of d = 0.80 for cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating depression. According to Cohen's (1988) conventions, this effect size is:
- Small
- Medium
- Large (Correct answer)
- Very small or negligible
Correct answer: Large
Cohen's conventions for Cohen's d: small = 0.2, medium = 0.5, large = 0.8. A d of 0.80 indicates a large effect size.
Jacob Cohen (1988) established widely used conventions for interpreting effect sizes. For Cohen's d: small = 0.2, medium = 0.5, large = 0.8. An effect size of d = 0.80 means the CBT treatment group's mean depression score is 0.80 standard deviations lower than the control group's — a clinically meaningful difference. Meta-analyses synthesize effect sizes across multiple studies to provide the most robust estimate of a treatment's overall effectiveness.
Question 4: The concept of 'trustworthiness' in qualitative research is analogous to which concept in quantitative research?
- Statistical power
- Validity and reliability (Correct answer)
- Sample size adequacy
- Random assignment
Correct answer: Validity and reliability
Lincoln and Guba proposed four trustworthiness criteria — credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability — as qualitative equivalents to validity and reliability.
Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba (1985) proposed criteria for evaluating qualitative rigor as equivalents to quantitative concepts: Credibility (internal validity) — using member checking, triangulation, prolonged engagement; Transferability (external validity) — thick description; Dependability (reliability) — audit trail; Confirmability (objectivity) — reflexivity. These criteria are standard in evaluating the rigor of qualitative counseling research.
Question 5: An Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviews research proposals primarily to:
- Ensure the research will be published in reputable journals
- Protect the rights and welfare of human research participants (Correct answer)
- Verify that the research will produce statistically significant results
- Evaluate the theoretical framework of the study
Correct answer: Protect the rights and welfare of human research participants
IRBs were established by the National Research Act (1974) in response to research abuses (e.g., Tuskegee) to protect human participants' rights, safety, and welfare.
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) were mandated by the National Research Act (1974) following exposure of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and other research abuses. IRBs review proposed research to ensure: informed consent is obtained; risks are minimized and justified by benefits; participants are selected equitably; vulnerable populations receive additional protections; and participants can withdraw without penalty.
Question 6: A counselor wants to evaluate the effectiveness of a new trauma-focused group therapy program. Which research design would BEST demonstrate that changes in outcomes are due to the program rather than other factors?
- Single-group pretest-posttest design
- Randomized controlled trial with a waitlist control group (Correct answer)
- Retrospective self-report survey
- Client satisfaction survey
Correct answer: Randomized controlled trial with a waitlist control group
An RCT with a waitlist control group compares participants receiving treatment to comparable participants not yet receiving it, controlling for confounding factors and establishing internal validity.
A randomized controlled trial (RCT) with a waitlist control group is the strongest design for establishing treatment efficacy. Participants are randomly assigned to either the treatment group or a waitlist (control). Any difference in outcomes between groups can be more confidently attributed to the treatment. A single-group pretest-posttest design cannot rule out maturation, history, or regression to the mean as explanations for change. Waitlist controls allow ethical treatment of all participants after the study.
LMHC Counseling Research and Program Evaluation 2
In quantitative research, 'statistical significance' (p < .05) means: