AP Psychology: Learning & Cognition 2 — Questions and Answers
Question 1: In classical conditioning, what is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?
- A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning (Correct answer)
- A previously neutral stimulus that now triggers a response
- The learned response to a conditioned stimulus
- A stimulus that has been paired with a reward
Correct answer: A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning
The unconditioned stimulus naturally and automatically produces a response without any conditioning.
In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is any stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning. In Pavlov's famous experiment, food was the UCS because it naturally caused salivation (the unconditioned response, UCR). The UCS is paired with a neutral stimulus (bell) until the neutral stimulus alone can trigger the response, becoming a conditioned stimulus (CS).
Question 2: What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?
- Positive adds a desirable stimulus; negative removes an aversive stimulus (Correct answer)
- Positive rewards behavior; negative punishes behavior
- Positive is effective; negative is ineffective
- Positive uses food; negative uses shock
Correct answer: Positive adds a desirable stimulus; negative removes an aversive stimulus
Both increase behavior: positive reinforcement adds something pleasant, while negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant.
In operant conditioning, both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behavior. Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus after a behavior (e.g., giving a treat for completing homework). Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus after a behavior (e.g., taking aspirin removes a headache, reinforcing aspirin-taking). The key distinction from punishment is that reinforcement always increases behavior, while punishment decreases it.
Question 3: What did Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrate?
- Children learn aggressive behavior through observation and imitation (Correct answer)
- Children are naturally aggressive regardless of environment
- Punishment effectively eliminates aggressive behavior
- Only boys imitate aggressive behavior
Correct answer: Children learn aggressive behavior through observation and imitation
Bandura's experiment showed that children who observed an adult behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate that aggression.
Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiments (1961-1963) demonstrated observational learning (modeling). Children who watched an adult aggressively punch, kick, and yell at an inflatable Bobo doll later imitated those specific aggressive behaviors. Children who saw the model rewarded were most likely to imitate; those who saw punishment were less likely but still learned the behavior (latent learning). This established social learning theory, showing that learning occurs through observation without direct reinforcement.
Question 4: What is the availability heuristic in decision-making?
- Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind (Correct answer)
- Making decisions based on the most recent information
- Choosing the first option presented
- Estimating probabilities using mathematical formulas
Correct answer: Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind
The availability heuristic leads people to overestimate the probability of events that are more memorable or vivid.
The availability heuristic, identified by Tversky and Kahneman (1973), is a cognitive shortcut where people estimate the probability of an event based on how easily relevant examples come to mind. Dramatic events (plane crashes, shark attacks) are more vivid and memorable, leading people to overestimate their frequency compared to more common but less dramatic risks (car accidents, heart disease). Media coverage amplifies this bias.
Question 5: What is a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule and why is it effective?
- Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses; it produces high, steady response rates (Correct answer)
- Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses; it produces predictable behavior
- Reinforcement at random time intervals; it produces slow responses
- Reinforcement after every response; it produces rapid learning
Correct answer: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses; it produces high, steady response rates
Variable-ratio schedules reinforce after an unpredictable number of responses, producing the highest and most consistent response rates.
A variable-ratio (VR) schedule provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses, averaging around a set number. For example, a VR-5 schedule reinforces on average every 5 responses, but the actual number varies. This produces the highest and most steady rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction. Slot machines, lottery tickets, and social media notifications operate on VR schedules, explaining their compelling nature.
Question 6: What is Noam Chomsky's theory of language acquisition?
- Humans have an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that enables language learning (Correct answer)
- Language is learned entirely through operant conditioning
- Children learn language only through imitation
- Language ability depends solely on intelligence
Correct answer: Humans have an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that enables language learning
Chomsky proposed that humans are born with an innate capacity for language, called the Language Acquisition Device, which contains universal grammar.
Noam Chomsky challenged B.F. Skinner's behaviorist view of language acquisition by proposing that humans possess an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) — a biological endowment that contains universal grammar, the deep structural rules common to all languages. This explains why children worldwide acquire language at similar ages and stages, can produce novel sentences never heard before, and master complex grammar despite limited and imperfect input (the 'poverty of the stimulus' argument).
AP Psychology: Learning & Cognition 2
In classical conditioning, what is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?